Culture and Society

Filipinos are mostly of Malay origin with the majority of the population being of Roman Catholic affiliation. There are a large number of ethnic groups with over a hundred different languages spoken throughout the country. Families are very close and the Philippines has a large population with about 40% of the population below the poverty line. Only a small number of families control most of the political and economic power and wealth. Corruption is believed to be high and Philippine elections are typically violent with voters being intimidated or bribed. The country also suffers from Muslim and communist insurgencies.

Throughout the Philippines are many large malls where Filipinos can hang out and go shopping. The main form of transport is the jeepney although tricycles are very common too. The many fiestas held throughout the country are the result of towns and villages celebrating their own patron saint or other notable event. In addition to high family values, Filipinos will make establish close ties with neighbours and the community, especially in the time of someone requiring help. There is also the Utang na Loob or Debt of Gratitude which is owed from a Filipino who has been helped to those who helped him. Other Filipino traits include avoiding confrontation as confrontations can be considered as embarrassing for all parties involved, concern for one's own image and reputation, and word and sense of honour.

Culture

Filipinos are essentially of Malay descent with a little Chinese, Spanish, Arab and American mixed in. It is no longer possible to distinguish between these lines however. Long before the Spanish arrived, Chinese and Borneo Muslims had already arrived and settled in the Philippines. During Spanish rule, there was significant racial segmentation. Spaniards who were born in Spain were considered to be at the top. Next were the Spaniards that were born in the Philippines and were known as Filipinos (at this time native Malay Filipinos were called Indios or Indians). The term Filipino was later expanded to include the entire population residing in the Philippines. Further down were the mestizos who were of a mixed race, such as Spanish-Chinese or Spanish-Filipino and at the very bottom were the Indios or native Filipinos. As a result of colonisation from Spain and the US, the Philippines is almost certainly the most westernised Asian country. Literally, a place where east meets west.

Ethnic Groups

The Philippines is home to a large number of ethnic groups. The largest group, the Tagalogs, dominate Manila and the surrounding provinces. Cebuanos are the next largest group and can be found in the Central Visayas and throughout most of Mindanao. Ilocanos are the third largest group and are mostly found in the Ilocos Region and other provinces throughout northern Luzon. The Hiligaynons (or Ilonggos) are the next major group and occupy parts of the Western Visayas. In the Bicol Region, the Bicolanos can be found and further south on Samar and parts of Leyte are the Warays. The Kapampangans and Pangasinenses are the seventh and eighth largest groups respectively and be found in parts of or just outside of Central Luzon. Maguindanaos are the ninth largest group overall but they are also the largest Muslim group and most are mixed with Indonesian blood dating back to the 14th Century. The tenth largest group overall and second largest Muslim group are the Maranaos who are mixed with Arabic blood. The Muslim groups are generally found in southwest Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago and other neighbouring islands. There are many more groups such as the Ivatans found in the remote islands of Batanes and the Aetas, mostly scatted around the Central Luzon, Western and Central Visayan provinces. A variety of indigenous groups can be found in the Cordilleras and parts of southern Mindanao. There is also a significant Chinese population. Other and minority groups include mestizos, Americans, Europeans, Arabs and a number of other foreign groups from within Asia, such as Japanese, Korean, etc.

Languages

As may be expected from such a large and diverse number of ethnic groups, there are many languages spoken in the Philippines. Filipino (formerly Pilipino) and English are the official languages. Filipino was born from the 1935 Constitution as a result of the lack of a single national language. It is mostly based on Tagalog combined with elements from many of the other native languages. English was first introduced by the British during their occupation of Manila during the Seven Years War with Spain but it was not until the American era that English was established a nationwide language. After the official languages, the most widely spoken languages are Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), Bicol, Waray, Pampangan, Pangasinan, Maguindanao and Maranao. Ethnologue (www.ethnologue.com) lists 175 languages for the Philippines of which four are now extinct and six others close to extinction. Although Spanish was once an official language and taught in school, it is now just a minority language. Other non-Philippine languages include Arabic, Indian, various European and Asian languages. The many native languages of the Philippines fall under the Malayo-Polynesian group of the Austronesian family.

Religion

Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, a large percent of the population would have been Muslim as a result of expansion of Islam to the Philippines in the 14th Century. The Chinese population would have presumably been Buddhist, Taoist and other religions. Spain's lasting legacy is the introduction of Christianity in the form of Catholicism and the conversion of most of the population. Protestantism arrived in 1899 by missionaries that accompanied American soldiers. There are also two independent churches which are the Aglipay Church or Philippine Independent Church founded in 1902 and Iglesia Ni Kristo (Church of Christ) founded in 1914. Today, over 80% of the population are Catholics, around 5% are Protestants (Methodists, Adventists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, etc) around 5% are Sunni Muslims, 2% - 3% belong the Aglipay Church, over 2% belong to Iglesia Ni Kristo and the remainder consists of Buddhists, Taoists, Hindus, Sikhs, Jews and various others.

Demographics

The 2000 Census of Population and Housing from the National Statistics Office (NSO) put the population of the Philippines at 76,498,735 consisting of 15,271,545 households with an average size of 5 people. The 2005 projected population puts the population at 85,236,913 and is expected to reach 100 million by around 2014. Rapid growth 1980 - 1990 forced the government to build more schools, health centres and houses to accommodate the fast growing population. The Commission on Population (POPCOM) is the government agency tasked with family planning matters and controlling population growth but with very little results.

Overseas Filipino Workers

Filipinos can be found in just about every corner of the world. Overseas Filipino Workers or OFWs are Filipinos that have gone aboard to seek work. Many OFWs are in the Middle East but they can also be found in America, Europe, Australisia and Asia. Typically, the OFW will send part of their earnings back home to their families to provide for them. As family values are very high with Filipinos, family includes parents, spouse, children, grandparents, grandchildren, uncles, aunts, cousins, second cousins, etc. It is not uncommon to find a whole clan in which one member is OFW and is sending home the money to provide for the rest. The remittance from OFWs is also a significant factor in and contributor to the Philippines economy.

The Elite, Power and Politics

In 1834, the Philippines was opened up to international free trade. Rapid economic growth and development soon followed. This give rise to a Filipino elite known as the illustrados or enlightened ones. Many illustrados travelled to Europe for education. The most famous illustrado is Jose Rizal. As Spanish rule ended, the situation become one in which only a few illustrado families controlled most of the wealth and land throughout the Philippines. Very little has changed since then. It is essentially the same families that are the land owners of large estates, hold high offices in politics and government and account for most of the wealth within the Philippines. In addition, the Chinese and their families are generally much better of than their Filipino counter parts. The Chinese have a strong foothold in business and commerce. Virtually all Chinese families have their own businesses which can range from a local restaurant to some the largest companies and corporations in the Philippines.

As mentioned above, it is generally the same families now as it was a century ago that account for most of the wealth in the Philippines. It is these same families that also hold most of the political power. Many congressmen, senators, cabinet members and other officials that currently hold office are descendents of families who held the same offices decades earlier. It is not just political power but also economic power that is accounted for by the elite. Prior to martial law, the Lopez family was very powerful and influential and owned an air service, a number of newspapers, the ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation and the Meralco electricity company. The Lopez family was stripped of its political and economic power during martial law when Ferdinand Marcos tried to remove his rivals from the elite. The Lopez family has since returned to a level of political and economic power it enjoyed prior to martial law. Corruption may be regarded as another legacy from Spain. During the Spanish regime, corruption and various abuses from the friars were not uncommon. Even in an independent republic, corruption was serious problem. During martial law under the Marcos regime, corruption exploded to never before seen heights and seeped into every part of the government both national and local. The post-Marcos governments and administrations have not been particularly better.

Living Standards, Health and Education

Living standards in the Philippines vary dramatically from the upper class to the lower class. There is also a significant squatter population and homeless population and it is for these groups that living standards are lowest. There are communities that have developed from dump sites. Individuals and families have built some sort of home and shack from the refuse materials they regularly rummage through. Poverty is a significant factor in the Philippines and a large percentage of the population are under the poverty line. Rural areas tend to be worse than urban areas. In rural areas, ways of life are mostly through agriculture. Over the years there has been migration to cities and over developed areas especially Metropolitan Manila, which has put extra strain on the urban areas and may account for some of the squatter population. In cities and other urbanised areas, there are many shopping malls, cinemas and far more commercial and business establishments than in the rural areas. Families tend to be larger in the rural areas but as a result of this, parents may not be able to afford to send all of their children to school or to pay for adequate health care when required, especially when incomes are much lower than in urban areas. Communities do tend to be much closer in rural areas though and one person in a rural community will probably know just about every other member of the community.

Life expectancy in the Philippines is around 70 years (67 years for males and 73 years for females). There are private and public (government) hospitals, health centres, etc in the Philippines although health facilities are far better in the cities and urbanised areas than in rural areas. Malnutrition is a problem particularly for the most poverty stricken of the population. Only a tiny percentage of the population have HIV/AIDS. Other diseases include bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, dengue fever, malaria (in some parts of the country) and rabies. Deterioration of health can also be attributed to individuals that are unable to afford or can't access health facilities or contamination of water as a result of pollution, air pollution or overloaded infrastructure, such as sewage drainage systems in urban areas.

The 2000 Census defined literacy rate as a person over 10 years of age with the capability to read and write. The literacy rate in the Philippines is over 90%. Education is considered highly important and many employers expect candidates to have a degree. There are both private and public (government) schools in the Philippines.

Crime

Some acts of crime can be attributed to the economic hardship of the Philippines. For those that are poor, unemployed and have a large number of mouths to feed, crime may provide income through theft, although theft could also be drug related. Apart from various domestic crimes and sex offences, other illegal activities include drugs, trafficking and smuggling. At higher levels, there is corruption within the government and violence, intimidation, bribery, politically motivated murder (of candidates) and vote-rigging are all trademarks of Philippine elections. Even after elections, officials have been assassinated. The communist and Muslim insurgencies also contribute to crime at the political level. Firearms are legal in the Philippines and the spread of firearms has also contributed to crime.

The Left and its Origins

The landlord-tenant problem is one that goes back towards to start of American rule. Originally, landlords and peasant tenants had a system in which landlords provided the land and seeds during the planting season and the peasants provided tools and animals for cultivation. Both parties covered half of the expenses and both parties took half of the harvest. However, the land was leased to the peasants with steep interest rates attached resulting in many families becoming trapped in debt. When the peasants died, the debt would be passed over to their children and so the debt passed from one generation to another. The situation worsened as a result of rapid population growth during the pre-Commonwealth period of American rule. This put more pressure on the land but also, the landlord-tenant system shifted in favour of the landlord. In self-interest, landlords stopped paying their half of the expenses and took a much larger share of the harvest. Almost every president has tried to tackle this problem but it still remains to be completely resolved. In addition, the majority of the members of the Philippines Congress are land owners so there is very little, if any, chance that they will pass a bill that effectively strips them of their land.

The Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) was established in 1930. In 1938, the Socialist Party and the CPP joined forces in a coalition seeking better working conditions and contracts for the peasant tenants. During the Commonwealth and in the years up to WWII, there a number of strikes by tenants and violent confrontations between tenants and landlords. As the Japanese invaded and forcefully established authority over the Philippines, many peasants became guerrillas and joined resistance movements. The elite, which included many landlords simply accepted Japanese rule, just as they had American rule years early simply to retain their elite status. The largest guerrilla movement was the HUKBALAHAP also known as the Huks. After the war, the Huks were branded as dangerous insurgents accused of communist and socialist affiliation. It is likely many of the peasants had little or no knowledge of the principles of communism and socialism; they simply sought a little more social equality and a fairer deal.

In 1946, the Philippines gained its independence from the US. The Huks accused the ruling political elite of collaborating with the Japanese and therefore they were not fit to rule. There were a number of violent confrontations between the Huks and government forces and attempts by President Roxas to crush the Huks with brute military force proved as ineffective as peaceful attempts made by President Quirino. It was during the term of President Magsaysay that the Huk threat came to an end. Magsaysay reformed the military and training in guerrilla warfare was given. In addition, Magsaysay successfully encouraged many Huks to return to the side of the law in an amnesty. Luis Taruc, leader of the Huks surrendered to the government in 1954. The Huks threat was over.

In 1969, Ferdinand Marcos was re-elected as president after a very successful first term, however, his popularity hit rock bottom shortly after. The population was growing faster than the economy could support and there was much dissatisfaction about the lack of action being taken to tackle to curb corruption within the government. The differences between social classes began to widen. The elite became richer and the poor became poorer. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a time of social unrest and student activism. A new CPP was founded in 1968, which went on to establish its own guerrilla army, the New Peoples Army (NPA). The communists took advantage of the social unrest and general discontent and abuses of the Marcos administration and its subservience to the US, to recruit members and further their own agenda. A number of bombs in the 1970s were attributed to the CPP/NPA although pro-Marcos forces may have been responsible to justify martial law which was proclaimed in 1972. Suspected members of the CPP and NPA were rounded up and detained indefinitely. The NPA continued to operate in the countryside assassinating local government officials believed to be guilty of corruption and human rights violations.

The military brutality of the Marcos regime was such that many peasants the poor began cooperating with the NPA some even joined its ranks. There is a notable story of a priest from the Cordilleras who joined the NPA. After the downfall of Marcos, President Aquino tried to negotiate with the communists and there was a temporary ceasefire. However, the CPP and NPA problem remains despite various negotiations and acts of reconciliation made by the government. Although the CPP and NPA are in a far weaker position now than during the Marcos regime, it is probable that as long as the old landlord-tenant problem remains, so will the CPP and NPA.

The Moros and Other Indigenous Groups

The conflict between the government and the Moros, Filipino Muslims in the south western areas of Mindanao, is a problem that goes back to early Spanish rule. When the Spanish established the Philippines as their colony, they set about the conversion of the population to Catholicism. Mindanao remained outside of Spanish control for virtually all of the Spanish era. Initially, the Spanish demanded the Moros surrender and accept Spanish sovereignty and convert to Catholicism. When the Moros refused, the Spaniards tried a more aggressive approach. Throughout most of Spanish rule, the Spanish tried several times to conquer Mindanao and the Moros. In retaliation, the Moros would sail to various costal settlements in Luzon and Visayas. They would attack and destroy the settlements while capturing some of the local population who would then be taken back to Mindanao and other Moro controlled areas to become slaves.

Sultan Kudarat who lived 1581 - 1671 and ruled for 50 years attacked and defeated the Spanish many times during their attempts to conquer the Muslim population. The Spanish suffered further humiliation when they were forced to pay ransom to recover their men back from Kudarat. The Sultan and the Spanish signed a treaty in 1645 which would allow missionaries to attend to Christians in Mindanao. Throughout the Spanish era, only a few established costal settlements and parts of Mindanao were under Spanish control. After Spain's defeat by Filipino revolutionaries and American forces, the US signed a treaty of non-interference with the Moros. When the US had conquered the Christian Filipinos, it began a conquest of the Muslim areas. There were a number of fierce resistances to the US but eventually, the Americans dominated the entire archipelago.

During early American rule, the Department of Mindanao and Sulu was established which administered the Muslim areas. When the Commonwealth was established in 1935, they were subject to rule from Christian Filipinos who were their centuries old enemies. The Moros protested against this. When the Japanese invaded in WWII, some Moros sided with the Japanese for reasons of benefit while others saw the Japanese as just another invaded that must be fought off.

The Moros continued to reject rule from imperial Manila after WWII and Philippine independence from the US. As a result of peasant and land problems, there followed a large wave of immigrants from Luzon and Visayas into Mindanao. This inflamed the Muslim-Christian situation. The Moros realised they were effectively being marginalised on their own ancestral lands by the large wave of Christian immigrants. The situation had deteriorated into a lawless and violent one by the late 1960s with a Muslim-Christian struggle over land, resources, political and economic power and with the emergence of gangs, there was bloodshed.

In the late 1960s, the Philippines was in dispute with the newly created Malaysia over the state of Sabah. Allegedly, President Marcos recruited some 200 Muslims to be trained. They would then be covertly sent to Sabah to wreck havoc and destabilise Malaysia in order to take back Sabah. When the Muslim recruits learned of this, they refused as they would have to fight their fellow Muslims in Malaysia. After the refusal, the recruits were exterminated and the operation aborted. This is known as the Corregidor Incident.

When Marcos proclaimed martial law in 1972, all citizens were required to surrender their guns. The Moros traditionally possessed guns as a way of life. The Moro feeling was that the government could not be trusted, that they had to rely on themselves rather than the state to protect themselves. A number or rebellions broke out and a group known as Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) was formed with the intention of establishing an independent Moro state from the Philippines. In its fight against government forces for an independent Moro state, the MNLF received support from Malaysia and Libya. The conflict reached its peak in the early to mid 1970s with the majority of the military being deployed in the southern Philippines. Military and civilian casualties were high as was the destruction of property. The Marcos administration also tried various economic and political concessions and amnesty and incentives, such as land. The non-military tactics worked and the MNLF began to suffer a setback by 1976.

In 1976, under the supervision of a union of Muslim states, the Moros and the Philippine government began to talk. Part of the Tripoli agreement provided for autonomy in the Muslim areas of the Philippines. After a referendum held in certain provinces in the Philippines, two Mindanao regions were granted autonomy. It soon became apparent that the autonomy was nominal the two autonomous regions were still ruled from imperial Manila, fighting resumed in 1977. The rebellion never recovered though as a result of factionalism. The MNLF broke down into several other groups, one of which was the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).

In the final years before EDSA and the downfall of Marcos, clashes between Moro groups and the military became less frequent. The MNLF signed a peace agreement with the government in 1996. The MILF rejected this peace agreement but in 2001, they too signed a peace agreement with the government. In 1991, a number MNLF members broke off and formed the Abu Sayyaf Group. The Abu Sayyaf continue to fight for an Islamic state to be formed in the Moro parts of the Philippines. Over the years, they have resorted to kidnapping and extortion to raise funds while carrying out bombings and assassinations.

There are also a number of indigenous groups elsewhere in the Philippines. The people and tribes of the Cordilleras remained unconquered by the Spanish and as such, they do not necessarily consider themselves to be citizens of the Philippines. During the Marcos regime, plans were put forward to build a hydroelectric dam in the Cordilleras. This would mean flooding a large and significant part of the area. The people and tribes of the Cordilleras opposed the plan and in the end, the government abandoned the idea. The CPP and NPA had quite strong presence in the Cordilleras during the Marcos regime but this presence seems to have faded somewhat over the years. There is a movement however, for autonomy in the region. In addition, there are a large number of indigenous groups in southern Mindanao. Only a few years ago, these indigenous people formally requested an independent state as they no longer wish to be part of the Philippines for various reasons including abuses from the military. It appears this request has amounted to nothing.

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